Running & Strength Training

Running & Factors that Affect Performance

Performance in distance running is multifaceted, relying on an intricate interaction of physiological, biomechanical and psychological factors. Plenty of research has shown strong relationships between V̇o2max and performance at middle (800 m.) and long-distance (marathon) (Ingham et al., 2008). Because of this, maximal oxygen uptake (V̇o2max) protocols have been traditionally used in the laboratory to monitor and predict the performance potential of both middle- and long-distance runners.

However, a high V̇o2max (>70 ml·kg−1·min−1) may be a prerequisite to be an elite distance runner, but additional physical qualities are needed to succeed at this level. Key performance indicators such as running economy (RE), velocity at maximal oxygen uptake (vV̇o2max), and anaerobic function have been established as superior markers of success in these elite populations (Beattie et al., 2014).

Running economy is defined as the metabolic cost to cover a given distance at a constant velocity (Shaw et al., 2014). Running economy represents the ability of a runner to translate cellular energy production into running locomotion and is normally expressed as the volume of oxygen consumption per unit of body mass required to run a kilometer (ml·kg−1·km−1) (Shaw et al., 2014). Running economy is determined by the athlete's physiology, anthropometrics, biomechanics, and environment (Barnes & Kilding, 2015).

Running & Strength Training

Elite endurance running performance is not only influenced by cardiopulmonary factors that dictate oxygen transport and utilization, but also peripheral aspects relating to neuromuscular force production. Reactive strength is the most important strength quality in middle- and long-distance running events, as athletes need to have proficient leg musculotendinous stiffness and stretch - shortening cycle function to rapidly absorb and use the elastic energy during each stance-phase ground contact (Wild et al., 2011).

The velocity attained at V̇o2max (vV̇o2max) is a “functional” expression of maximal oxygen consumption in velocity units (km·h−1). The vV̇o2max is a composite of both maximal oxygen consumption and economy. Although V̇o2max may remain stable throughout an elite distance runner's career, research has shown that the velocity at V̇o2max can improve by approximately 14% (Jones, 2006). This demonstrates that elite distance runners can improve their ability to translate maximal aerobic energy production into faster running velocities. During middle-distance events (800 and 1,500 m), or sprint finishes in long-distance events where velocities exceed vV̇o2max and the contribution of the anaerobic energy system is increased (Noakes et al., 1990). Endurance-specific “muscle power” is the ability of the neuromuscular system to rapidly produce force after a sustained period of high-intensity exercise (high glycolytic and oxidative energy demand) (Nummela et al., 2006).  Therefore, rate of force development (RFD) is essential not only in short-distance events (i.e., 100, 200, and 400 m) but also in middle- and long-distance running. Consequently, in addition to cardiovascular capacity, limitations to elite distance running performance may be dictated by peripheral neuromuscular force production ability.

One training technique for improving rate of force production in athletes is strength training. Research (Paavolainen et al., 2000) demonstrated that the neuromuscular adaptations from strength training (i.e., musculotendinous stiffness, motor unit recruitment and muscular coordination) (Zatsiorsky et al., 2004) have the potential to improve performance in distance runners (Yamamoto et al., 2008) by improving running economy (Barnes & Kilding, 2015), vV̇o2max, and anaerobic function (Mikkola et al., 2007).

However, strength training is generally still an uncommon physical preparation modality in the distance running community. This is most likely due to the “hypertrophic” connotations associated with lifting weights, with distance runners inadvertently linking strength adaptations to increased musculature and body mass—which would potentially negatively affect relative physiological performance parameters (i.e., V̇o2max, RE). Nonetheless, a recent systematic review by Beattie et al. (Beattie et al., 2014) in competitive distance runners reported that strength training can improve 3 km (2.7%) and 5 km time-trial performance (3.1%), running economy (4.0–8.1%), vV̇o2max (1.2%) and maximum anaerobic running velocity (VMART) (3%).

The main finding of a study (Beattie et al., 2017) was that strength training can significantly improve strength (maximal and reactive strength) and key physiological performance indicators, specifically the running economy and vV̇o2max, in competitive distance runners. Interestingly, the improvements in strength, running economy, and vV̇o2max were attained without significant changes in body composition (body mass, fat, and lean tissue mass). These results strongly support the application of strength training within the distance running community, demonstrating that to optimize endurance performance, strength training should be a vital component in the physical preparation of distance runners.

Practical Applications

A general maximal strength–orientated program (2 times / week, with low-volume plyometrics) during the preseason is an appropriate and efficient method for improving both maximal and reactive strength capabilities in distance runners. Whilst a study demonstrated that this structure of strength programming can significantly improve economy and vV̇o2max over a 20-week preseason period.

However, it is advised that during the racing season, strength sessions are performed once per week to maintain strength qualities, especially reactive strength.

As, in a study, the group who followed those applications were able to improve reactive strength by a further 6.8% with only 1 session per week, while maintaining maximal strength. Whilst, the distance runners who do not perform strength training, reactive strength can deteriorate by 7.9% throughout the racing season period.

Finally, it is important to note that for optimal adaptation and development of endurance and strength qualities, strength sessions should be carefully programmed around “intense” aerobic (i.e., race pace/>lactate threshold 2/>80% V̇o2max) and anaerobic endurance training.

References

Barnes KR, Kilding AE. Strategies to improve running economy. Sports Med 45: 37–56, 2015

Beattie K, Kenny IC, Lyons M, Carson BP. The effect of strength training on performance in endurance athletes. Sports Med 44: 845–865, 2014

Beattie K., Carson B.P., Lyons M., Rossiter A., Kenny I. The Effect of Strength Training on Performance Indicators in Distance Runners. Journal of Strength and Conditioning Research. 2017

Ingham SA, Whyte GP, Pedlar C, Bailey DM, Dunman N, Nevill AM. Determinants of 800m and 1500m running performance using allometric models. Med Sci Sports Exerc 40: 345–350, 2008

Jones AM. The physiology of the world record holder for the women's marathon. Int J Sports Sci Coach 1: 101–116, 2006

Mikkola J, Rusko H, Nummela A, Pollari T, Häkkinen K. Concurrent endurance and explosive type strength training improves neuromuscular and anaerobic characteristics in young distance runners. Int J Sports Med 28: 602–611, 2007.

Noakes TD, Myburgh KH, Schall R. Peak treadmill running velocity during the VO2max test predicts running performance. J Sports Sci 8: 35–45, 1990

Nummela A, Keranen T, Mikkelsson LO. Factors related to top running speed and economy. Int J Sports Med 28: 655–661, 2006

Paavolainen LM, Nummela A, Rusko H. Muscle power factors and VO2max as determinants of horizontal and uphill running performance. Scand J Med Sci Sport 10: 286–291, 2000.

Shaw AJ, Ingham SA, Folland JP. The valid measurement of running economy in runners. Med Sci Sports Exerc 46: 1968–1973, 2014.

Wild J, Bezodis N, Blagrove R, Bezodis IA. Biomechanical comparison of accelerative and maximum velocity sprinting: Specific strength training considerations. Strength Cond J 21: 23–36, 2011.

Yamamoto LM, Lopez RM, Klau JF, Casa DJ, Kraemer WJ, Maresh CM. The effects of resistance training on endurance distance running performance among highly trained runners: A systematic review. J Strength Cond Res 22: 2036–2044, 2008

Zatsiorsky VM, Kraemer WJ. Science and Practice of Strength Training. Champaign, Il, USA: Human Kinetics, 2004.